杏吧原创

You don鈥檛 come across many Nobel prizewinners who believe in the paranormal, but Brian Josephson is one of them. After receiving the Nobel prize in physics for his research on superconductivity, his work has taken a very different direction. As well as using mathematics to describe how the brain carries out complex tasks, he is an advocate for cold fusion and other phenomena on the fringes of science. He talked to Alison George about why he thinks scientists have an irrational bias against unconventional ideas.

Why did you decide to give up your highly successful work on superconductors?

In the late 1960s I found my area of research less interesting, so I looked elsewhere for problems to work on. Investigating the mathematics of how the brain works is a much more difficult challenge. I also became interested in eastern philosophy and how that might fit in with physics. I read a book called The Tao of Physics by Fritjof Capra that pointed out the parallels between quantum physics and eastern mysticism.

I started to feel there was more to reality than conventional science allowed for, and some interesting ideas that it hadn鈥檛 got round to investigating such as altered states of consciousness. At a conference in Toronto I saw demonstrations of psychokinesis 鈥� the influence of mind on matter 鈥� and it all pointed to some extension of what science knows at this time.

Did your Nobel prize allow you to investigate areas that are off-limits for other scientists?

It meant I was free to explore, and people felt less able to say 鈥測ou can鈥檛 work on that鈥�. However, I have had problems with getting funding for collaboration because of the areas I鈥檝e chosen to work in.

You have become an advocate for unconventional ideas. How did that happen?

I went to a conference where the French immunologist Jacques Benveniste was talking for the first time about his discovery that water has a 鈥渕emory鈥� of compounds that were once dissolved in it 鈥� which might explain how homeopathy works. His findings provoked irrationally strong reactions from scientists and I was struck by how badly he was treated. To an extent, I realised that the way science is done by consensus could get things completely wrong. I feel that it鈥檚 important to try and correct the errors that scientists are making.

What errors are these?

I call it 鈥減athological disbelief鈥�. The statement 鈥渆ven if it were true I wouldn鈥檛 believe it鈥� seems to sum up this attitude. People have this idea that when something can鈥檛 be reproduced every time, it isn鈥檛 a real phenomenon. It is like a religious creed where you have to conform to the 鈥渃orrect鈥� position. This leads to editors blocking the publication of important papers in academic journals. Even the physics preprint archive blocks some papers on certain topics, or by certain authors.

Do you believe that cold fusion and the memory of water are real, or are you just open to the idea of their being real?

In both cases there is evidence that makes me accept them as almost certainly real. They鈥檙e probably connected with aspects of organisation that are difficult to deal with in the usual scientific way. I鈥檓 pushing in that direction. I look very carefully at things before I accept them as real.

You draw the line in a very different place to most scientists when it comes to hard-to-prove phenomena such as telepathy and cold fusion.

Can I take you up on something? These things are not hard to prove, they鈥檙e just hard to get accepted. The evidence for these phenomena would normally lead to them being accepted, but they have an additional barrier in that they are 鈥渦nacceptable鈥� and often unpublishable. Some people are extraordinarily hard to convince. In particular, people who work in an area in which the phenomena are highly reproducible cannot envisage situations such as cold fusion where 鈥� as in many areas of materials science 鈥� things are not that reproducible. They take the illegitimate step from 鈥渉ard to reproduce鈥� to 鈥渘on-existent鈥�. Science is often presented as an objective pursuit, but the history of science tells you that this is far from being the case.

Do you mean that scientists cannot accept these phenomena because it would ruin their view of the world?

It would mean an admission of error. Instead, sceptics can always say that there must have been something wrong with these experiments. This means that you can never really prove anything, and a sceptic doesn鈥檛 actually have to discover anything wrong to dismiss an experiment.

Is this why you鈥檝e posted the motto 鈥渢ake nobody鈥檚 word for it鈥� at the top of your website?

Yes. And the corollary of this motto is that if most scientists denounce an idea, this should not necessarily be taken as proof that the idea is absurd. It seems that anything goes among the physics community 鈥� cosmic wormholes, time travel 鈥� just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age-ish.

There are lots of pointers towards strange things, such as the quantum interconnectedness of entangled particles, but physicists are very prickly about them, saying you shouldn鈥檛 read anything into these results. There are in fact a lot of scientists who believe telepathy exists, but they keep quiet about it.

I take it that means you pay a price for speaking out about things like cold fusion, telepathy and the paranormal.

Yes. If you say you accept the reality of the paranormal then this automatically affects your reputation. It鈥檚 assumed that if a person believes in this kind of thing then his views are not worth considering. It has led to certain people being very prejudiced against me and assuming that there鈥檚 something wrong with anything I do. I don鈥檛 have the kind of support network that researchers usually have. But since I can do my research on the mathematics of the brain by myself this is less of a problem than it otherwise would be, though it slows down progress considerably.

Why do you speak out about these things when you know it causes difficulties for your own research career?

They are important for various reasons. For example, cold fusion may contribute significantly to solving the problem of generating clean energy. Had it not been ridiculed back in 1989, we鈥檇 probably all now be using energy generated by cold fusion. So it鈥檚 really important to speed up the process. I reckon that cold fusion will be accepted in the next year or so.

If the evidence about cold fusion is so convincing, why do so few people believe in it?

You have to look properly at the evidence typically blocked from publication by journals such as Nature, and few people are willing to put in the effort to do that. Even better, go along to a laboratory where the work is being done. It鈥檚 also hard to change how people think. People have vested interests, and their projects and reputations would be threatened if certain things were shown to be true.