Environmental genesis
I agree with Weiss in expanding the definition of the term “genetic” to include somatic cell division and migration irregularities during embryonic and fetal development.
However, there is a further use of the term genetic: faulty gene expression due to the effects of the environment or incident cues. Head trauma and fevers in infancy are such environmental causes. But there are other causes that can switch genes on or off erroneously that can lead to epilepsy: unfavourable uterine conditions (fevers, stress, substance abuse), prematurity, especially extreme prematurity, birth-related sensory and physical traumas (for example, the use of forceps, Caesarean section), abuse during infancy and childhood, to name a few.
During development, genes are switched on and off at precise times. Any environmental interference with this time-sensitive process can have long-term effects and may even be a cause for irregularities in somatic cell division and migration.
Environmental genesis
Kenneth Weiss’s suggestion that we should rethink the notion of what we mean by genetic (23 October, p 35) set me thinking about the origin of the word. The fact is that it does not stem from genes but, in German at least, from Goethe and his interest in morphogenesis.
As long ago as the 18th century there was talk about a genetic science that was supposed to understand the development of shape, and when Alexander von Humboldt composed his Kosmos in the mid-19th century the term “genetic” appears in many contexts, referring to changes of external nature driven by internal forces.
Modern genetics is very far from being a genetic science in this sense. It is a physical science that understands causes called genes, but has no inkling of genetic laws leading to the form we admire when we look at life.
Lions for sale
Fred Pearce is at it again: dissing the “animal lovers” and applauding the “use it or lose it” brigade, or as they would see themselves, the “wise use movement” 鈥� those who say that trade in endangered animals is the way to preserve them (23 October, p 14). His article makes for provocative reading. Sadly, it lacks accuracy.
He says that CITES decided not to ban the buying and selling of lions and their body parts. That is not what CITES decided. In fact CITES did not decide anything at all on lions, since Kenya, the country proposing that lions be listed on Appendix I of the convention, withdrew its proposal.
The proposal itself would not have imposed a total ban, as Pearce states, as it would have continued to permit trophy hunting of lions under the private and personal effects exemption. But it would have brought far greater rigour to the import and export process, thereby offering the opportunity to shut down exports from countries where the trophy hunting of lions could be shown to be detrimental to the species. Sadly, the opportunity to bring this kind of serious focus to the plight of lions has been lost, at least for now.
For myself and for millions of others around the world, the day is long overdue when the “wise use” mantra is superseded by a broader philosophy that uses neither the privilege of wealth nor the spectre of poverty as an excuse for the exploitation of the natural world.
Swiss roles
No wonder people tend think that all Swiss are bankers and watchmakers when Swiss scientists (as well as artists) are attributed German, French or Italian nationality depending on the sound of their names. Conrad Gessner/Gesner was a Swiss naturalist and savant, born and educated in Zurich (16 October, p 50).
He was a doctor in Zurich and founder of the city’s first botanical garden, corresponding with some of the major European Renaissance scientists on topics as diverse as botany, zoology, medicine, pharmacology, classical philology, theology and linguistics
Tangle-free boats
Kamran Mohseni’s optimisation of the vortex formation is most interesting (23 October, p 30). Trying these out myself, I found that very long and thin or very short and fat thrusters did not work, and now Mohseni has shown that a ratio of length to width of 4:1 is the best.
However, the article fails to mention what is perhaps the most important characteristic of a vortex thruster: it is almost completely proof against tangling or blocking, unlike a propeller. I was once caught on a yacht in a storm with a propeller fouled by a piece of rope and can vouch for just how serious a problem this can be. Similarly, propellers on boats operating in shallow water are often badly abraded or broken.
I have proposed in my book Ink Sandwiches that vortex drives be used instead of propellers for seagoing vessels, especially inshore boats. I don’t believe that vibration will be an overwhelming objection. Propellers on many current small craft are so high in the water that when cruising at high speed their blades break the surface, producing a lot of vibration. This doesn’t seem to stop anyone using small, high-speed craft.
Come and steal me
Just a comment on your article about “The bag that never forgets” (23 October, p 23).
It seems to me that a bag that says “Keys, yes! Cellphone, yes!” is ideal for informing any potential bag snatcher what they would get should they choose to pick on you.
Civet liberties
Kurt Kleiner reports that the supply of kopi luwak is drying up due to civil unrest in Sulawesi (16 October, p 44). After eating all those coffee beans, I would imagine there’s a fair amount of civet unrest too.
For the record
鈥� The Federation Against Software Theft would like to point out that Microsoft is no longer a member of its organisation, as was assumed in a letter we published (23 October, p 29).
Built to break
Your series of letters on energy policy and greenhouse gas emissions over the past few months has ignored a phenomenon that is undermining efforts to cut energy consumption.
In the UK, numerous technologies, from vehicle engines to domestic central heating boilers, are now subject to legally enforceable regulations aimed at saving energy and reducing emissions. However, although product emissions and working efficiencies have improved, a curious twist has emerged. These technologies have become very complex and this increased complexity costs energy and resources in monitoring and maintenance. Commercial activity pursuing this extra complexity is now prolific, highly profitable, and itself very polluting.
Take one example. A survey of gas installers that I and colleagues conducted in the Nottingham area revealed that some 40 per cent of today’s energy-efficient combination boilers break down within the first year, and ongoing repair and service costs can average 拢160 per year. Boiler lifespans are down to only three years in some cases.
The energy expended in repairs, manufacturing of parts, distribution networks and so on may soon outstrip the working energy saved by the new-style boilers 鈥� if it hasn’t already. As a result, a so-called energy-saving boiler may use more energy and be more polluting than a simple old-style boiler with manual pilot light and cast-iron components.
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs does not include these secondary energy costs in its efficiency ratings for boilers. Until the full life cycle is factored in 鈥� including costs to install, service, maintain and recycle 鈥� boilers and other supposedly energy-saving products may generate more pollution, not less.
Hold the sodium
Gerald Legg highlighted possible confusion over descriptions of the level of salt added to foods (9 October, p 30). Unfortunately, his letter might add to the confusion, so it is worth clarifying a few points.
It is the sodium in salt (sodium chloride) that is important in terms of human health. Current labelling law in the UK requires sodium content to be shown when more than fat, energy, protein and carbohydrates are listed. This content can be directly analysed, making it easy to verifiy the levels claimed on the label. Salt content cannot be measured directly, and it is often difficult to match analysed sodium content with the known salt added in a recipe.
Sodium may be added to food in a number of forms apart from in salt, including raising agents in baked goods and curing agents in meat products. The solution is not to fudge the issue by quoting the amount of added salt, but to ensure that consumers understand that sodium is what is important. The use of “salt equivalents” calculated from sodium content as Gerald Legg describes can help educate people about this, provided it is made clear how these values are calculated.
Genome's missing links
In the article on the “shotgun” approach, the genome sequencing method used by Craig Venter’s team, one of the team’s members points out that the shotgun effort failed “only for around 3 per cent of the genome” (23 October, p 5). This is misleading. For a genome sequence to be academically 鈥� rather than commercially 鈥� valuable, continuity is essential. Would Venter be happy to dangle from a chain from which 3 per cent of the links had been removed at random?
How to help Malawi
Bj酶rn Lomborg’s economists fail to see the real problems of the poor counties of Africa (30 October, p 23). In Malawi the population has increased from 5 million to 11 million in 20 years. The birth rate is still 6.6 children per woman, and family gardens are now too small for survival. As a report by the Malawi government and Oxfam says: “From 0.3 hectares of land you do not expect to grow enough food to feed the family.”
The resulting permanent famine could be solved now by a “two child” population policy. Will the Copenhagen Consensus face up to this human reality? International donors should give first priority to birth control programmes in Africa.
In Malawi, a huge national programme of HIV education and propaganda over 10 years has made no difference to the relentless spread of AIDS. Money poured into this avenue is not economically justifiable.
Finally, all attempts to improve the quality of life in poor Africa rely on the services of local doctors, nurses and teachers. Hospitals, rural health centres and schools are failing across Africa for lack of staff. Economists should recognise that financial support for the incomes of doctors, nurses, and teachers in poor countries should have a high priority in donor plans.
Tyranny of sex
Asexuality in humans has been long overdue for objective discussion (16 October, p 38). Sex, no matter the context, is culturally force-fed. Yet there are asexuals who know even as children that they are different, and meant to be. And no, it isn’t an illness. It is a wellness, in fact: freedom from confusing, overbearing, life-limiting drives.
In trying to create social awareness of asexual people, David Jay is to be applauded for his courage in following his own convictions rather than listening to (perhaps jealous, probably prejudiced and ignorant) others who say that having no sexual desire is abnormal, or that it indicates latent homosexuality, or that it is an evolutionary mistake.
Sex is not like breathing. It is not for everyone.